Differences in Cultural Principles

Culture Scales

Concept of Self
Individualist- The self is the smallest unit of survival. Looking out for one’s self protects others. Personal fulfillment is the greatest good. Independence and self reliance are highly valued. Children are taught to stand on their own two feet. Workers don’t mind individual recognition. One’s identity is personal and individual, not a function of one’s membership or role in a group. (US)
Collectivist- The primary group, usually the family, is the smallest unit of survival. Looking out for others protects one’s self. Group harmony is the greatest good. Children are taught to depend on others, who in turn can depend on them. Employees don’t like to stand out, they prefer group/ team recognition. Identity is a function of one’s membership/ role in a primary group.(SE Asia, China)

Personal vs. Societal Responsibility
Universalist- What’s right is always right. There are absolutes which apply across the board. The law is the law no matter who one is, there should be no exceptions. Consistency is important. “Fair” means treating everyone the same and one should try to make life fair. (US, UK, Germany)
Particularist- There are no absolutes. What’s right depends on the circumstances. There must always be exceptions (esp. for in-group members). Consistency is not possible (life isn’t that neat). “Fair” means treating everyone uniquely and no one expects life to be fair.(Africa, China, Middle East, then India, Mexico, SE Asia)

Subjective and Objective
Logic of the Head- Favoritism is frowned upon. People should not let personal feelings intrude into or affect workplace/ professional decisions. Friends don’t expect friends to cover for them. People succeed because of what they do, not because of whom they know. To be objective is a positive thing, something to strive for. (same as PS vs. SR)
Logic of the Heart- Favoritism is the norm. Since the system isn’t fair, people have to look out for their in-group (or others). Whom you know, connections are more important than performance. Friends expect, and provide preferential treatment. One can’t and shouldn’t leave personal feelings out of professional dealings.


Concept of Time
Monochronic- Time is a limited commodity. The needs of people are subservient to the demands of time. Deadlines and schedules are sacred. Plans are not easily changed. People may be too busy to see you. People live by an external clock. (US, UK, G)
Polychronic- Time is bent to meet the needs of people. There is always more time. Schedules and deadlines are easily changed. Plans are fluid. People always have time to see you. People live by an internal clock. (India, Africa, Middle East, Mexico)

Time and Other People
One Thing at a Time- People do one thing at a time and finish one thing before starting another. People expect undivided attention. Interruptions are to be avoided. To be late or kept waiting is rude. People stand in line. The goal is to stick to the schedule. (US, UK, G)
Many Things at Once- People may do several things at the same time and may split their attention between several people/ tasks. To be late or kept waiting is okay. Interruptions are part of life. People don’t stand in line. The goal is to enjoy life. (Africa, India)

Locus of Control
Internal- The locus of control is internal. Fate has little or no importance. There are few givens in life, few things that can’t be changed and must just be accepted. Where there’s a will, there’s a way. One makes one’s own luck. Unhappiness is one’s own fault. People tend to be optimistic. Life is what you make it. (US)
External- The locus of control is external. Fate plays a major role. People believe they have limited control over their destiny/ external events. Many things in life must be accepted/ can’t be changed. Success/ lack of success is partly a result of good/ bad fortune. People tend to be realistic/ fatalistic. Life is what happens to you. (Middle East, Africa)


Degree of Directness
Direct- People say what they mean and mean what they say. There is no need to read between the lines. It’s best to tell it like it is. People are less likely to imply and more likely to say exactly what they are thinking. Yes means yes. (Germany, US)
Indirect- People don’t always say what they mean or mean what they say. You have to read between the lines. People are more likely to suggest or imply than to come out and say what they think. You can’t always tell it like it is (what if that upsets the other person?) Yes may mean maybe or even no. (Africa, China, SE Asia)

Role of Context
Low Context- People are individualistic. In-groups are not as well developed as they are in high-context cultures and people spend less time in them, hence there are fewer shared experiences and less shared understanding. One has to spell things out and be explicit. Words are the primary carriers of meaning. What is said is more important than what is not said. (US, G)
High Context- People tend to be collectivistic. In-groups are strong and people spend a lot of time together, hence there are more shared experiences and more common understanding than there are in low-context cultures. There is less need to spell things out. Words are not always the primary carriers of meaning. What is not said may be more important than what is said. (SEA, Africa, China, Japan)

Importance of Face
Face is Less Important- Telling the truth is more important than sparing one’s feelings. Honesty is the best policy. It’s okay to say no and to confront people. People don’t worry much about saving face. Getting /giving information efficiently is the primary goal of the communication exchange. (US, G)
Face is More Important- Preserving harmony and saving face are key concerns. The truth, if it threatens harmony or someone’s face, should be adjusted. One says what one thinks the other person wants to hear. It’s not always proper to say no, disagree, or confront (that disturbs harmony). Preserving/ strengthening the personal bond is the goal of the communication exchange. (China, Africa, SEA, Japan)

Power Distance
Low- Democratic management style. Power is not usually jealously guarded, managers share authority with subordinates. Subordinates take initiative and are not overly deferential to managers. Subordinates do not like to be micromanaged. Decision making tends to be consultative. Okay to say no/ disagree with the boss. Manager/ subordinate relations are fairly informal. Rank has few privileges. (UK, G then US)
High- Authoritarian- Power is centralized. One defers to authority. Managers hold on to power, not much delegation of authority. Subordinates do not take initiative but wait for explicit instructions. Decisions are made at the top. One does not openly disagree with/ say no to the boss. Rank has its privileges. Manager/ subordinate relations are formal. (Russia then SEA, Middle East, Mexico, India, China)

Attitude Toward Uncertainty
Positive- People are not afraid of taking risks or failing. Trial and error/ experimenting is how we learn and improve our products and services. What is different is interesting. Change is positive. New is often better. Tradition is not valued for its own sake. The “way we have always done things” is not necessarily the best way. What we don’t know can’t hurt us. (US)
Skeptical- Taking risks and failing have strong negative consequences and should be avoided if at all possible. One does not try something until one knows it will work. What is different can be dangerous. Change is threatening. New is not necessarily better. Traditions should be respected and are a good guide to the future. There’s a good reason for “the way we have always done things.” What we don’t know can be troubling. (Russia, SEA, ME, C, M, I)

Attitude Toward Work
Achievement- People are motivated by achievement. Ambition is rewarded. Being successful means moving up, getting ahead, and having greater responsibility. Professional opportunity/ the chance to make more money is more important than job security. If people have to choose between work and family, they may choose work. One lives to work. (Japan then US, UK, G)
Quality of Life- A better quality of life is what motivates people to work. A pleasant work setting and good relations with coworkers are as motivating as the chance to make more money and move up. Having time to spend with family is as important as the lure of achievement. More power and responsibility are not automatically attractive. Success means you are admired and respected by others. One works to live. (Russia, Africa then France, Spain)

Key to Productivity
Results- Focusing on the task ensures success. What matters most in employees is their productivity and output, which are related to technical skills and experience. Conflict is sometimes necessary to clear the air and move forward. Getting results is ultimately more important than how you get them. Employee/ employer relationship is often opportunistic. Employee loyalty is not as important as performance/ productivity. (G, US)
Harmony- Harmony in the workplace ensures the success of an organization. What matters in employees is their ability to get along/ work well with others, which is related to personal qualities (more than technical skills). Conflict should be minimized because of disruptive consequences. How you get results is as important as the results themselves. Employer/ employee relationship is like a family. Loyalty is expected and reciprocal. (Japan)

Source of Status
Achieved- Meritocracy- Rank, status, and respect must be earned and do not come with the position or title. Family name and social class do not confer automatic status. People are respected and promoted based on their performance and achievements, regardless of age or seniority. Age/ seniority do not grarantee respect or status. It is relatively easy to change your status (move up). People of higher rank/ status should not act superior to / better than those of lesser. (G, US, Russia)
Ascribed- Autocracy- Rank, position, and title confer automatic status and respect. Social class/ family name confer initial status (but it can be lost if you do not perform well). Achievements are important for promotion, but age and seniority are also highly valued. Age and seniority confer automatic status and respect. It is difficult to change your status (especially to move up). People should be careful not to behave above/ below their station in life. (Africa, Middle East, India)